Hypnosis: History & Research.

Hypnosis has been in use since the earliest days. There has been much scientific study and medical research carried out into hypnosis since the 17 century.

A SELECTIVE MODERN WESTERN HISTORY OF HYPNOSIS

1775: Dr. Franz Mesmer developed healing by ‘animal magnetism’ or mesmerism, which was later renamed hypnosis.

1784: Count Maxime de Puysegut discovered a form of deep trance he called somnambulism.

1821: Painless dentistry & surgery in France using magnetism. Breakthroughs made by  Frenchmen Ambrose Liebeault (1823-1904), J.M. Charcot (1825-93) a Paris neurologist, and Charles Richet (1850-1935).

1791-1868: John Elliotson, President of the Royal Medical and Surgical Society of London and a professor at London University, professed belief in magnetism/mesmerism and used hypnotic trance to perform 1,834 surgical operations.

1795-1860: A London/Scottish eye doctor and physician, James Braid, renamed magnetism/mesmerism as HYPNOSIS.

1845-53: A British surgeon in India, James Esdaile, performed 2,000 operations – even amputations – with the patients under hypno-anaesthesia and feeling no pain.

1857-1926: Frenchman, Emile Coue, pioneered the use of autosuggestion and the use of affirmations e.g. ‘Day by day in every way I am getting better and better’.

1883-1887: Sigmund Freud, father of cathartic method, free association and psychoanalysis, become interested in hypnosis and began to practise it. Not being very good at it, he went on to develop psychoanalysis instead!

1891: The British Medical Association reported favourably on use of hypnosis in field of medicine.

1901-80: Milton H. Erickson MD, the recognised leading authority on clinical hypnosis, a master of indirect hypnosis, was able to put a person into a trance without even mentioning the word hypnosis.

1914: World War I – New Era of Hypnosis. Revival due to multiplicity of paralytic and amnesia cases with psychogenic origin and few psychiatrists available.

1925-1947: Use of hypnosis in dentistry developed in the US.

1950s Both the British Medical Association and the American Medical Association issued statements supporting the usefulness of hypnosis as a form of therapy.

1958: British Hypnotherapy founded.

1962: A brain operation was performed under hypnosis in Indianapolis in the US.

1968: The British Society of Medical and Dental Hypnosis was founded, exclusively for medical doctors and dentists.

1973: The Hypnotherapy Register established in the UK administered by the National Council for Psychotherapists. Later to become the National Council for Hypnotherapy.

1977: British Society of Experimental and Clinical Hypnosis founded mainly for psychologists.

1977: Institute of Psychology and Parapsychology founded. Later to become Institute of Hypnosis and Parapsychology, a unregistered, non-profit making learned society in the UK and the US.

1980: National School of Hypnosis and Psychotherapy and the Central Register of Advanced Hypnotherapists established.

1982: Corporation of Advanced Hypnotherapy and The Atkinson-Ball College of Hypnotherapy established.

1983: The Proudfoot School of Hypnosis established.

1984: London College of Clinical Hypnosis and the British Society of Clinical Hypnotherapists founded.

1987: Formation of British Society for the Practice of Hypnosis in Speech Therapy. The Soothsayer Foundation and the World Institute of Professional Hypnotherapists formed.

1989/90: The Institute of Hypnosis and Parapsychology evolves into the College and Association of Stress Management.

1991: Setting up of PSI Services plc as a commercial company to offer stress management and hypnosis techniques in employee assistance programmes to British industry.

1992: The Royal College of Practitioners invites PSI Services plc to submit a 2,000 word paper on the use of hypnosis for the lesser psychiatric disorders. Published in the 1992 handbook circulating to 17,000 senior GP’s.

1993: New Scientist publishes results of largest survey ever recorded of stopping smoking methods, spanning several continents – hypnosis proven to be streets ahead of anything else!

1995: National Association of Holistic Hypnotherapists established in the UK.

1997: http://www.hypnosis.org.uk website (known as ‘Hypnosis UK’) established by Dr. Charles Barr PhD to promote a wider understanding and acceptance of hypnosis.

Scientific and Medical references.

In the mid 19th Century in India, a Scottish ( born in Montrose, Angus 14 miles from where I write this ) surgeon, James Esdail, performed 2,000 operations – even amputations – with the patients under hypno-anaesthesia and feeling less or no pain.

Another Scottish surgeon ( Opthalmic ) James Braid, born in Kinross in 1795, is considered by many to be the father of hypnosis.

• Braid, J. “Magic, Mesmerism, Hypnotism, etc., Historically and Physiologically considered”, 1844–1845, Medical Times vol. XI., pp. 203–204, 224-227, 270-273, 296-299, 399-400, 439-41.
• Braid, J. (Preyer, W., ed.) Der Hypnotismus. Ausgewählte Schriften von J. Braid. Deutsch herausgegeben von W. Preyer [On Hypnotism; Selected Writings of J. Braid, in German, edited by W. Preyer.], Verlag von Gebrüder Paetel, (Berlin), 1882.
• Braid, J., “Electro-Biological Phenomena Physiologically and Psychologically Considered, by James Braid, M.R.C.S. Edinburgh, &c. &c. (Lecture delivered at the Royal Institution, Manchester, March 26, 1851)”, The Monthly Journal of Medical Science, Vol.12, (June 1851), pp. 511–530.
• Braid, J., “Experimental Inquiry to determine whether Hypnotic and Mesmeric Manifestations can be adduced in proof of Phrenology. By James Braid, M.R.C.S.E., Manchester. (From the “Medical Times”, No.271, 30 November 1844)”, The Phrenological Journal, and Magazine of Moral Science, Vol.18, No.83, (1845), pp.156-162.
• Braid, J., “Facts and Observations as to the Relative Value of Mesmeric and Hypnotic Coma, and Ethereal Narcotism, for the Mitigation or Entire Prevention of Pain during Surgical Operations”, The Medical Times, Vol.15, No.385, (13 February 1847), pp. 381–382, Vol.16, No.387, (27 February 1847), pp. 10–11.
• Braid, J., “Hypnotic Therapeutics, Illustrated by Cases. By JAMES BRAID, Esq., Surgeon, of Manchester”, The Monthly Journal of Medical Science, Vol.17, (July 1853), pp. 14–47.
• Braid, J., “Hypnotism” (Letter to the Editor), The Lancet, Vol.45, No.1135, (31 May 1845), pp. 627–628.
• Braid, J., “Letter to the Editor of The British Record of Obstetric Medicine and Surgery [on the use of ether and chloroform for surgical and obstetric purposes]“, The British Record of Obstetric Medicine and Surgery, Vol.2, (1849), pp. 55–59.
• Braid, J., Magic, Witchcraft, Animal Magnetism, Hypnotism, and Electro-Biology; Being a Digest of the Latest Views of the Author on these Subjects (Third Edition), John Churchill, (London), 1852.
• Braid, J., Neurypnology or the Rationale of Nervous Sleep Considered in Relation with Animal Magnetism Illustrated by Numerous Cases of its Successful Application in the Relief and Cure of Disease, John Churchill, (London), 1843.
• Braid, J. (Simon, J. trans.), Neurypnologie: Traité du Sommeil Nerveux, ou, Hypnotisme par James Braid; Traduit de l’anglais par le Dr Jules Simon; Avec preface de C. E. Brown-Séquard [Neurypnology: Treatise on Nervous Sleep or Hypnotism by James Braid, translated from the English by Dr. Jules Simon, with a preface by C. E. Brown-Séquard.], Adrien Delhaye et Émile Lecrosnier, (Paris), 1883.
• Braid, J., “Observations on Mesmeric and Hypnotic Phenomena”, The Medical Times, Vol.10, No.238, (13 April 1844), pp. 31–32, No.239, (20 April 1844), pp. 47–49.
• Braid, J., “The Physiology of Fascination” (Miscellaneous Contribution to the Botany and Zoology including Physiology Section), Report of the Twenty-Fifth Meeting of the British Association; Held at Glasgow in September 1855, John Murray, (London), 1856, pp. 120–121.
• Braid, J., The Physiology of Fascination, and the Critics Criticised [a two-part pamphlet], John Murray, (Manchester), 1855.
• Braid, J., “The Power of the Mind over the Body: An Experimental Inquiry into the Nature and Cause of the Phenomena Attributed by Baron Reichenbach and Others to a “New Imponderable”. By JAMES BRAID, M.R.C.S. Edin., &c., Manchester”, The Medical Times, Vol.14, No.350, (13 June 1846), pp. 214–216,No.352, (27 June 1846), pp. 252–254,No.353, (4 July 1846), pp. 273–274.
• Braid, J., “The Power of the Mind Over the Body” (1846), pp. 178–193 in Dennis, W. (comp. and ed.), Readings in the History of Psychology, Appleton-Century-Crofts, Inc., (New York), 1948.
• Braid, J., Observations on Trance; or, Human Hybernation, John Churchill, (London), 1850.
• Braid, J., “Physiological Explanation of Some Mesmeric Phenomena”, The Medical Times, Vol.10, No.258, (31 August 1844), pp. 450–451;reprinted as “Remarks on Mr. Simpson’s Letter on Hypnotism, published in the Phrenological Journal for July 1844″, The Phrenological Journal, and Magazine of Moral Science, Vol.17, No.81, (October 1844), pp. 359–365.
• Braid, J., Satanic Agency and Mesmerism Reviewed, In A Letter To The Reverend H. Mc. Neile, A.M., of Liverpool, in Reply to a Sermon Preached by Him in St. Jude’s Church, Liverpool, on Sunday, April 10, 1842, by James Braid, Surgeon, Manchester, Simms and Dinham, and Galt and Anderson, (Manchester), 1842.

Please see below for a very small sample of the available reading and research regarding hypnosis

References

Anxiety and Stress Management

Rapid relaxation–practical management of preoperative anxiety.
Rapid Relaxation suggestions markedly improves the quality of the dental experience.
Published: J Can Dent Assoc. 2007 Jun;73(5):437-40
PubMed ID: 17555655

Hypnosis reduces preoperative anxiety in adult patients.
On entrance to the operating rooms, the hypnosis group reported a significant decrease of 56% in their anxiety levels
Published: Anesth Analg. 2006 May;102(5):1394-6.
PubMed ID: 16632816

Tele-hypnosis in the treatment of adolescent school refusal.
This study illustrates the benefits of self-hypnosis in the treatment of school refusal, while also enabling the patient to maintain the connection with the therapist so that the anxiety may be confronted when it arises.
Published: Am J Clin Hypn. 2006 Jul;49(1):31-40
PubMed ID: 16889360

Adjunctive self-hypnotic relaxation for outpatient medical procedures: a prospective randomized trial with women undergoing large core breast biopsy.
Concludes that, while both structured empathy and hypnosis decrease procedural pain and anxiety, hypnosis provides more powerful anxiety relief without undue cost and thus appears attractive for outpatient pain management.
Published: Pain. 2006 Dec 15;126(1-3):155-64
PubMed: 16959427

Depression

Cognitive hypnotherapy for depression: an empirical investigation.
Results show that Cognitive Hypnotherapy produced 6%, 5%, and 8% greater reduction in depression, anxiety, and hopelessness, respectively.
Published: Int J Clin Exp Hypn. 2007 Apr;55(2):147
PubMed ID: 17365072

Treating postpartum depression with hypnosis: addressing specific symptoms presented by the client.
A case report in which hypnotherapy was successfully utilized in the treatment of Postpartum Depression by attending to the specific problems presented by the client and developing client skills to resolve existing problems and prevent their recurrence.
Published: Am J Clin Hypn. 2007 Jan;49(3):219-23
PubMed ID: 17265979

Cognitive change in patients undergoing hypnotherapy for irritable bowel syndrome.
HT resulted in improvement of symptoms, quality of life and scores for anxiety and depression. This study shows that symptom improvement in IBS with HT is associated with cognitive change. It also represents an initial step in unravelling the many possible mechanisms by which treatments such as HT might bring about improvement.
Published: J Psychosom Res. 2004 Mar;56(3):271-8
PubMed ID: 15046962

Smoking Cessation

Intensive hypnotherapy for smoking cessation: a prospective study.
The rates of point prevalence smoking cessation, as confirmed by carbon-monoxide measurements for the intensive hypnotherapy group, was 40% at the end of treatment; 60% at 12 weeks, and 40% at 26 weeks
Published: Int J Clin Exp Hypn. 2006 Jul;54(3):303-15
PubMed ID: 16766441

Clinical hypnosis for smoking cessation: preliminary results of a three-session intervention.
At the end of treatment, 81% of patients reported that they had stopped smoking, and 48% reported abstinence at 12 months posttreatment.
Published: Int J Clin Exp Hypn. 2004 Jan;52(1):73-81
PubMed ID: 14768970

Hypnotic treatment of smoking: the single-treatment method revisited.
Treatment results after a single, one hour session indicate a 25% total abstience rate after a six month review.
Published: Am J Psychiatry. 1979 Jan;136(1):83-5.
PubMed ID: 758833

Weight Management

Participation in multicomponent hypnosis treatment programs for women’s weight loss with and without overt aversion.
Significant weight loss was achieved by the hypnosis treatment group.
Published: Psychol Rep. 1996 Oct;79(2):659-68
PubMed ID: 8909095

Effectiveness of hypnosis as an adjunct to behavioral weight management.
At the 8-month and 2-year follow-ups, study hypnosis clients showed significant additional weight loss as compared to other groups. More of the subjects who used hypnosis also achieved and maintained their personal weight goals.
Published: J Clin Psychol. 1985 Jan;41(1):35-41
PubMed ID: 3973038

Weight loss for women: studies of smokers and nonsmokers using hypnosis and multicomponent treatments with and without overt aversion.
Smokers and nonsmokers achieved significant weight losses and decreases in Body Mass Index.
Published: Psychol Rep. 1997 Jun;80(3 Pt 1):931-3
PubMed ID: 9198396

Hypnotic enhancement of cognitive-behavioral weight loss treatments–another meta-reanalysis.
Published: J Consult Clin Psychol. 1996 Jun
PubMed ID: 8698945

Impotence and Sexual Enhancement

Acupuncture and hypnotic suggestions in the treatment of non-organic male sexual dysfunction.
Hypnosis was shown to be superior to placebo.
Published: Scand J Urol Nephrol. 1997 Jun;31
PubMed ID: 9249892

Efficacy of testosterone, trazodone and hypnotic suggestion in the treatment of non-organic male sexual dysfunction.
Hypnosis was the only treatment method identified as being superior to placebo.
Published: Br J Urol. 1996 Feb;77(2):256-60
PubMed ID: 8800895

ble bowel syndrome in adults: Diagnosis and management of irritable bowel syndrome in primary care

National Collaborating Centre for Nursing and Supportive Care commissioned by National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence

Hypnotherapy for IBS and other gastrointestinal disorders. ( NICE GUIDELINES )

Irritable bowel syndrome in adults: Diagnosis and management of irritable bowel syndrome in primary care.

National Collaborating Centre for Nursing and Supportive Care commissioned by National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence.

“Hypnosis describes a range of naturally occurring states of altered awareness which may vary from momentary distractions and ‘absences’ through much enhanced states of relaxation to very deep states of inward focus and awareness. The mental processes which can occur in any of these states, appropriately utilised are generally far more flexible and potentially far more powerful in effecting change than those we can achieve in most everyday states of active conscious awareness. These states may be induced quite formally or quite naturalistically, in an almost unnoticeable way, depending on the requirement of the problem, the capability of the practitioner and the needs of the client (UK Council for Psychotherapy (UKCP) 1992).

Gut-directed hypnotherapy is a specific form of hypnotherapy developed for the management of gastrointestinal disorders. It uses the therapeutic qualities of hypnotherapy, such as deep relaxation, and adds gut-specific treatments and suggestions. ‘Gut-directed hypnotherapy’ can be used as a treatment for irritable bowel syndrome. IBS is ideal for treatment with hypnosis, as there is no structural damage to the body. During hypnotherapy people learn how to influence and gain control of their gut function and then seem to be able to change the way the brain modulates their gut activity (Whorwell 2005). Firstly, patients are given a brief outline of the anatomy and physiology of the gut and a schematic representation of their symptoms, using a diagram of the colon showing how smooth muscle spasm can give pain, bloating and a disordered bowel habit. Patients are told that the reduction of this spasm and normalisation of smooth muscle activity will reduce pain and bloating and encourage a more normal flow through the bowel. Hypnosis is induced by a standard technique, then over successive sessions, patients are asked to place a hand on their abdomen and feel warmth; then this warmth is related to reduction of spasm and the ability to alleviate pain and distension; patients are told that bowel habit will normalise as their control gradually improves; they visualise the gut as a meandering river and they can adjust the flow along it to a comfortable setting as one would open and close lock gates on a river. Patients may be given a self-hypnosis tape to use at home. Ego-strengthening and confidence-building comments can be made at the end of the sessions. Hypnotherapy can be administered to patients individually or as a group.”

(1 )    Whorwell PJ, Prior A, and Faragher EB (1984) Controlled trial of hypnotherapy in the treatment of severe refractory irritable-bowel syndrome, Lancet, 2(8414):1232-4.

General

Clinical hypnosis with school-age children
Substantial clinical literature demonstrates that hypnosis effectively reduces anxiety, enhances coping, and has been used successfully to treat behavior disorders, school phobias, and sleep disorders.
Published: Arch Psychiatr Nurs. 1990 Apr;
PubMed ID: 2357110

Self-hypnosis relapse prevention training with chronic drug/alcohol users: effects on self-esteem, affect, and relapse.
Hypnosis can be a useful adjunct in helping chronic substance abuse individuals with their reported self-esteem, serenity, and anger/impulsivity.
Published: Am J Clin Hypn. 2004 Apr;46(4):281-97.
PubMed ID: 15190730

Fractal analysis of EEG in hypnosis and its relationship with hypnotizability.
Analysis was applied to study the trends of EEG signals in the hypnotic condition. The present study has found that the application of the fractal analysis technique can demonstrate the electrophysiological correlations with hypnotic influence on cerebral activity.
Published: Int J Clin Exp Hypn. 2007 Jan;55(1):14-31
PubMed ID: 17135061

Teaching college students better learning skills using self-hypnosis.
Satisfaction and depth data indicated the students were involved all through the course. Statistical testing showed that students who scored highest on the CIS had the lowest initial GPA, improved most during the course, and significantly increased their GPA in the quarter after.
Published: Am J Clin Hypn. 1996 Apr;38(4):277-87
PubMed ID: 8799036

Hypnosis and pain management.

Hypnosis is empirically proved best therapy for pain management.
Published: Nurs J India. 2006 Jun;97(6):129-31
PubMed ID: 17058581

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Further references & research links.

Alladin, A. (1988). “Hypnosis in the Treatment of Severe Chronic Migraine. In M. Heap (ed.), Hypnosis: Current clinical, Experimental and Forensic Practices. London: Croom Helm. pp. 159-166.

Alice A. Martin, PhD; Paul G. Schauble, PhD; Surekha H. Rai, PhD; and R. Whit Curry, Jr, MD
The Effects of Hypnosis on the Labor Processes and Birth Outcomes of Pregnant Adolescents. The Journal of Family Practice, MAY 2001, 50(5): 441-443.

Abramson, M., & Heron, W.T. An objective evaluation of hypnosis in obstetrics: Preliminary report. American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology, 59, 1069-1074, 1950. Gallagher, S. Hypnosis for Childbirth: prenatal education and birth outcome. unpublished. June 2001. Davidson, J, MD.

Allison, David B.; Faith, Myles S. Hypnosis as an adjunct to cognitive-behavioral psychotherapy for obesity: A meta-analytic reappraisal. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology. 1996 Jun Vol 64(3) 513-516

Anderson, J.A., Basker, M.A. & Dalton, R. (1975). “Migraine and Hypnotherapy.” International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis, 23, 48-58.

August, R.V. Obstetric hypnoanesthesia. American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology, 79, 1131-1137, 1960, and August, R.V. Hypnosis in obstetrics. New York: McGraw Hill, 1961.

Barber, J. (Ed.). (1996). Headache. In J. Barber (Ed.). Hypnosis and Suggestion in the Treatment of Pain, 158-184. New York: Norton.

Brann LR, Guzvica SA. Comparison of hypnosis with conventional relaxation for antenatal and intrapartum use: A feasibility study in general practice. J R Coll Gen Pract 1987; 37:437-440.

Cochrane, Gordon; Friesen, J. (1986). Hypnotherapy in weight loss treatment. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 54, 489-492.

Davidson, J, MD. An assessment of the value of hypnosis in pregnancy and labour. Br Med Journal Oct 13, 1962, 951-953.

Defechereux, T., Meurisse, M., Hamoir, E., Gollogly, L., Joris, J., & Faymonville, M.E. (1999). Hypnoanesthesia for endocrine cervical surgery: A statement of practice. Journal of Alternative and Complementary Medicine, 5, 509-520.

Esdaile, J., Letters from the Red Sea, Egypt, and the Continent, (Calcutta), 1839.

Ernst, W., ““Under the Influence” in British India: James Esdaile’s Mesmeric Hospital in Calcutta, and its Critics”, Psychological Medicine, Vol.25, No.6, (November 1995), pp. 1113–1123.

Ernst, W., “Colonial Psychiatry, Magic and Religion. The Case of Mesmerism in British India”, History of Psychiatry, Vol.15, No.57, Part 1, (March 2004), pp. 57–71.

Esdaile, J., Mesmerism in India, and its Practical Application in Surgery and Medicine, Longman, Brown, Green, and Longmans, (London), 1846. [Often reprinted under the misleading and inaccurate title "Hypnotism in India"]

Esdaile, J., Natural and Mesmeric Clairvoyance, With the Practical Application of Mesmerism in Surgery and Medicine, Hippolyte Bailliere, (London), 1852.

Gauld, A., A History of Hypnotism, Cambridge University Press, (Cambridge), 1992.

Gallagher, S. Hypnosis for Childbirth: prenatal education and birth outcome. unpublished. June 2001.

Gutfeld, G. and Rao, L. (1992). “Use of Hypnosis with Patients Suffering from Chronic Headaches, Seriously Resistant to Other Treatment,” As reported in Prevention, 44, 24-25.

Hao TY, Li YH, Yao SF. Clinical study on shortening the birth process using psychological suggestion therapy. Zhonghua Hu Li Za Zhi. 1997 Oct; 32(10):568-70. (General Military Hospital of Jinan, P.R. China.)

Harmon, T.M., Hynan, M., & Tyre, T.E. Improved obstetric outcomes using hypnotic analgesia and skill mastery combined with childbirth education. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 58, 525, 530, 1990.

Hornyak, Lynne M. and Joseph P. Green. Healing From Within: The use of hypnosis in women’s health care. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association, 2000.

McCarthy, P. Hypnosis in obstetrics. Australian Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis, 26, 35-42, 1998.

Mellegren, A. Practical experiences with a modified hypnosis-delivery. Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics, 14, 425-428, 1966.

Kirsch, Irving (1996). Hypnotic enhancement of cognitive-behavioral weight loss treatments–Another meta-reanalysis. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 64 (3), 517-519.

Lang, E.V., Benotsch, E.G., Fick, L.J., Lutgendorf, S., Berbaum, M.L., Berbaum, K.S., Logan, H., & Spiegel, D. (2000). Adjunctive non-pharmacological analgesia for invasive medical procedures: A randomized trial.Lancet, 355, 1486-1490.

Montgomery, G.H., DuHamel, K.N., and Redd, W.N. (2000). A meta-analysis of hypnotic analgesia: How effective is hypnosis? International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis, 48, 138-153.

Mauer, M.G., Burnett, K.F., Ouellette, E.A., Ironson, G.H., & Dandes, H.M. Medical hypnosis and orthopedic hand surgery: Pain perception, postoperative recovery, and therapeutic comfort. International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis, 47, 144-161.

Montgomery, G.H., David, D., Winkel, G., Silverstein, J.H., and Bovbjerg, D.H. The effectiveness of adjunctive hypnosis with surgical patients: A meta-analysis. Anesthesia and Analgesia, 94, 1639-1645.

Olness, K., MacDonald, J.T. & Uden, D.L. (1987). “Comparison of Self-Hypnosis and Propranolol in the Treatment of Juvenile Classic Migraine.” Pediatrics, 79, 593- 597.

Palsson OS, Turner MJ, Johnson DA, Burnett CK, and Whitehead WE (2002) Hypnosis treatment for severe irritable bowel syndrome: Investigation of mechanism and effects on symptoms, Digestive Diseases and Sciences, 47(11):2605-14.

Patterson, David. (1996). Burn pain. In Joseph Barber (Ed.), Hypnosis and Suggestion in the Treatment of Pain, pp. 267-302. New York: Norton.

Pulos, L., “Mesmerism Revisited: The Effectiveness of Esdaile’s Techniques in the Production of Deep Hypnosis and Total Body Hypnoanaesthesia”, American Journal of Clinical Hypnosis, Vol.22, No.4, (April 1980), pp. 206–211.

Rainville, P., Duncan, G.H., Price, D.D., Carrier, B., & Bushnell, M.C. Pain affect encoded in human anterior cingulated but not somatosensory cortex. Science, 277, 968-971.

Schneck, J.M., “James Esdaile, Hypnotic Dreams, and Hypnoanalysis, Journal of the History of Medicine, Vol.6, No.4, (Autumn 1951), pp. 491–495.

Stradling J, Roberts D, Wilson A, Lovelock F. Controlled trial of hypnotherapy for weight loss in patients with obstructive sleep apnoea. International Journal of Obesity Related Metababolic Disorders. 1998 Mar;22(3):278-81.

Waltraud Ernst, Esdaile, James (1808–1859), Oxford Dictionary of National Biography 2004 (Subscription required)

Further reading.

Becker, E. (1973).
The Denial of Death.
New York: The Free Press.

Frank, D. and Mooney, B. (2003).
Hypnosis and Counselling in the Treatment of Chronic Illness.
New York: Crown House Publishing.

Friedman, R.A. Traversing the Mystery of Memory.
New York Times.
December 30, 2003. p. 5.

Gyatso, T. (Dali Lama) and Goleman, D. (2003).
Destructive Emotions: How Can We Overcome Them?
New York: Bantam Books.

Hammond, D.C., Ed., (1990).
Handbook of Hypnotic Suggestions and Metaphors.
New York: W. W. Norton and Company.

Laser, E. and Lang, E. (1996).
Methods of Non-Pharmalocologic Analgesia: A Sourcebook for Practitioners.
The Methods of Non-Pharmacologic Analgecis Workshop, University of Iowa Hospital..

Myss, C. and Shealy, N. (2002).
The Halographic View of Body, Mind, Emotion, and Spirit, Session 4. (CD-ROM). The Science of Medical Intuition.
Sounds True. Boulder, CO.

Rosen, S. (1992).
My Voice Will Go With You: The Teaching Tales of Milton Erickson.
New York: W. W. Norton & Co,

Saplinsky, R. (1993).
The Vicious Cycle of Stress.
Scientific American, pp. 81-91.

Scanning a Brain for Bipolar Root. (December 30, 2003).
New York Times.

Spiegel, David. (2003).
Presentation at the 54th Annual Conference of the Society for Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis, November, 2003, Chicago, IL.

Waldholz, M.
Altered States: Hypnosis Goes Mainstream.
Wall Street Journal, Oct. 7, 2003.

Warren, M. P. (2004).
Trauma: Treatment and Transformation.
New York: IUniverse.

1. “New Definition: Hypnosis” Division 30 of the American Psychological Association 
2. Spiegel, Herbert and Spiegel, David. Trance and Treatment. Basic Books Inc., New York. 1978.
3. Braid, J. (1843) Neurypnology.
4. Bausell, R Barker, quoted in The Skeptic’s Dictionary
5. Kirsch, I., “Clinical Hypnosis as a Nondeceptive Placebo: Empirically Derived Techniques”, American Journal of Clinical Hypnosis, Vol.37, No.2, (October 1994), pp.95-106; Kirsch, I., “Clinical Hypnosis as a Nondeceptive Placebo”, pp.211-225 in Kirsch, I., Capafons, A., Cardeña-Buelna, E., Amigó, S. (eds.), Clinical Hypnosis and Self-Regulation: Cognitive-Behavioral Perspectives, American Psychological Association, (Washington), 1999.
6. Braid, Neurypnology, 1843: ‘Introduction’
7. Braid, Hypnotic Therapeutics, 1853
8. “New Definition: Hypnosis” Society of Psychological Hypnosis Division 30 – American Psychological Association .
9. Braid, Neurypnology, 1843
10. White, Robert W. ‘A preface to the theory of hypnotism’, Journal of Abnormal & Social Psychology, 1941, 1, 498.
11. Waterfield, R. (2003). Hidden Depths: The Story of Hypnosis. pp. 36-37
12. Gulliford, Tristan. “Music and Trance in Siberian Shamanism.”
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Hypnotism & Mysticism.

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ANDERSON, J., WALKER, M. B. & WALKER, L. G. (2000) Distress and concerns of the partners of patients with breast cancer who receive primary chemotherapy. Psycho-Oncology, 9, 357.

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